Organizational Theory Essay

Why do large corporations tend to have larger ratios of clerical and administrative support staff? Why are they typically more formalized than small organizations? The clerical ratio increases because of the greater communication and reporting requirements needed as organizations grow larger. The professional staff ratio can increase due to the greater need for specialized skills in a larger corporation. As organizations increase in size, the administrative ratios declines and the ratios for other support groups will increase. Large corporations can have a wide range of functional specialties within the organization that perform multifaceted tasks and produce various products. For this reason, larger corporations are more formalized due to the complexity. Rules, procedures, controls and policy manual are needed in order to efficiently operate in a larger corporation. Large organizations rely on these rules and procedures to achieve and control the large number of employees and departments. Smaller organizations have simpler operations and a smaller number of employees which would not require detailed manuals or polices. The company may be so small that every employee physically sees each other every day and communicates on a regular basis. Question 7 Government organizations often seem more bureaucratic than for-profit organizations. Could this partly be the result of the type of control used in government organizations? Government organizations are more bureaucratic than for profit organizations because government organizations have a much larger number of clerical and administrative staff members. Considering that there are large numbers of groups in governmental organizations, bureaucracy is an effective way to minimize abuses of power and gain control. Bureaucracy also provides a systematic and rational way to organize and manage complex tasks that are too difficult to be understood and handled by few individuals. This is a great way to improve efficiency and effectiveness within governmental organizations.

Rewarding and Punishment the Same Behavior Essay

What type of reinforcement schedule does random drug testing represent? Is this type of schedule typically effective or ineffective? Answer: The case study â€Å"Professional sports: Rewarding and punishment the same behavior† was about how in a baseball game steroids are being used and the offense which has been caused by it. The type of reinforcement schedule discuss in this case was the random drug testing which presents the fact that most of the times baseball players are not aware of the point that they are taking drugs. This is because they don’t take it intentially but given by their coaches to improve performance of the player in game. According to the case I agree with the decision of commissioner of the baseball. According to his decision, he gave a second chance to the players who did not know that their coaches were giving them drugs. Whereas, he declared a ten day suspension for the first time offenders from playing the game. But congress and the general public was not satisfied so the commissioner incorporated tougher rules to play in the game such as the â€Å"three strikes, and you are out† policy wherein the first time offenders were suspended from playing the game for 50 days, the second time offenders were suspended from playing the game for 100 days and the last one was a ban wherein the player cannot further play the game. Due to the usage of steroids the rules in the other games even became tougher. The NFL and the NBA also had to check their players if they were using drugs while playing the game. The coaches in the baseball game needs to be strict while choosing their best players to play the game. The coaches need to be strict with rules of the game and as well as the players to stop using the usage of steroids in the baseball game. A fine or a suspension is considered as a minor part whereas the ultimate decision to ban the player is the correct decision which is made by the commissioner of baseball. . Whereas to find whether its effective or not we can see that the type of reinforcement schedules that random drug testing represent is the variable interval type. As defined, this type of schedule occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. In the case, the reinforcement schedule is done randomly and unexpected. It is typically effective because athletes not aware of the test and when these tests will be taken place. Therefore, athletes are unprepared. Unlike a fixed variable reinforcement schedule, athletes have a fixed time of when the tests will be scheduled so they can prepare and make sure their systems are clean before they take the test. . 2. What are some examples of behaviors in typical organizations that supervisors reward but may actually be detrimental to others or to the organization as a whole? As a manager, what might you do to try to avoid this quandary? . Answer: The main example of a behavior in a typical organization that supervisors reward but may actually be detrimental to others or to the organization as a whole is athletes taking steroids. When athletes take steroids to enhance their performance abilities, they are misleading their managers and their fans. Initially, it may be rewarding because everyone involved gains from the profitability, sports merchandise, increased popularity and success. But in the end, when it is discovered that the athlete achieved recognition with the aid of steroids he destroys his reputation and also his team’s and country’s reputation and the loyalty the fans had for him. If I was a manager, what I might do in order to avoid this quandary, if I was made aware of someone using steroids, I would do a random drug testing as soon as possible instead of having the whole team suffer for that one insubordinate athlete. . If you were the commissioner of baseball, what steps would you take to try to reduce the use of steroids in baseball? Is punishment likely to be the most effective deterrent? Why or why not? Answer: If I was the commissioner of baseball, there are several steps that I would take to try to reduce the use of steroids in baseball. First of all, I would reinforce to all the athletes tha t if someone is caught using steroids they will be thrown off the team. Second, I would continue to do random drug testing. Punishment is not likely to be the most effective deterrent. This will only cause athletes to stop playing and taking steroids for a certain period of time. In addition to it I would also have taken some steps as taken by the commissioner in this case. For the 1st time offender who didn’t know that they were being drugged by their coaches should be suspended for few games. In addition to that the coach must be strictly punished a huge sum of fine plus life time ban from the game. Whereas, for those who have offended it for the first time knowingly, must be suspended for a year plus a heavy amount fine should be imposed on them. And for those who have repeated it should be banned from baseball sport. The second part of the question was â€Å"Is punishment likely to be the most effective deterrent†? For me yes, punishment is the most effective deterrent. It is the competition that everyone loves. The feeling of winning makes many people do anything to achieve it. Even if this means one must cheat to win. Many players used and still use steroids to enhance their muscles so they are stronger during game play. There can be two ways of stopping the player not to use steroids, either by rewarding or by punishing. Rewarding in the sense, we can give incentives to players for not using them but the incentives of winning will be more attractive than these. Therefore one can punish the player if they use those incentives. A player cheats to win money, fans and fame. But if they are found to be using steroids, they will lose their fame and fans and should also be heavily fined. 4. Is it okay to allow potentially unethical behaviors, which on the surface may benefit organizations, to persist? Why or why not? Answer: No, unethical behaviors must not persist even if on the surface they may benefit organizations. For short term it may be beneficial but not in long run. Any unethical behaviors can directly affect the reputation of the organization. And in today’s world a good reputed organization is the most important part of organization building. People like to buy the service or product from a good reputed organization. It creates goodwill of the organization. For example, in context of the given case, organization can be the baseball team and unethical behavior can be the use of steroids by the players. This may help the team to build a strong impression and can help them to win many games as well. But the day general public will learn that the victory is not due to the hard work but rather than steroids, all of their impression will be on stake. They may lose their sponsors, fans and reputation. Same was the case happened with Pakistani cricket team. Few of the players of Pakistani cricket team player, Salman Butt, M. Amir and Asif, were involved in match fixing. They might have earned a lot from that but when it was exposed they were punished. They had to pay double amount of fine of what they earned. In addition to it now none of the companies will like to endorse just players who are involved in unethical activities. In addition to it they lost all their fans. Almost every Pakistani doesn’t like them because they created a bad impression of Pakistan in the global world. As well as destroyed the image of the Pakistani team nationally and internationally. Can you imagine cheating and excellence in the same sentence? What does known cheating and the Hall of Fame have in common? What does shameful and The Hall of Fame have in common? Does known cheating and excellence equal The Hall Of Fame? This debate doesn’t have two sides. There are no hairs to split. There are no counter arguments to argue. Cheating is not how to get ahead. Cheating isn’t even how to compete. Even if you’re never found out, It’s a setup for failure elsewhere in life. Anyone that has admitted or has been proven to have used performance enhancing drugs should never even be considered for the Hall Of Fame.

International business MOVIE REVIEW Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International business - Movie Review Example The American population has a record of making quite a huge size of garbage every year that amounts to about 250 million tonnes. The garbage is made up of fruit peels, bald tires, soda cans, frozen food container, etc. The size of the garbage produced is quite big and shocking. Whatever happens with the garbage produce is a subject that ‘Trash Inc: the secret Life of Garbage’ mainly undertakes. This documentary runs for one hour and is aired by CNBC on Wednesday. Carl Quintanilla is the documentary’s host and also known to be an Emmy award winning reporter. A big part of Quintanilla summer is seen through the documentary to be spent wading through garbage from Nevada, Pennsylvania to New York. Quintanilla also visits Beijing and Hawaii in the search of knowledge on garbage handling. Quintanilla tries to find out who handles garbage and what environmentally and economically is at stake. From the documentary, Quintanilla report indicates that garbage is both an oppo rtunity and an epidemic. The garbage industry is estimated to worth $52 billion in a yearly basis. This industry is also considered not be a one-size fit all. Most of America’s garbage is picked and transported to 2300 landfill within America. These landfills at the end make some huge profits towards their operators as some also capitalize on the landfill by piping out trash gas. The trash gas is mainly used within factories in the generation of electricity. Apex within Las Vegas is considered to be the largest landfill within the United States, and ‘Trash Inc.’ makes a visit there to know the operations of landfills. From Apex, the next trip is to Beijing which gives an opposite side of the story. Within Beijing, there are hundreds of dumps which are all illegal cropping up on the outskirts of the city. This dump sites are used to handle the high number of garbage that is produced by the

Company Analysis of Nestle Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Company Analysis of Nestle Corporation - Essay Example A situational audit is a comprehensive analysis of an organization’s current state in comparison to its micro and macro economic environment. According to Cherniss and Adler (2000, p. 97), a situational audit helps to establish the organization’s current situation in relation to its marketing objectives. In addition, a situation analysis identifies the future economic performance of the organization if it continues to use its current strategies. Nestle foods has operations in more than eighty countries globally. The organizations expansion strategy is implemented through joint venture and acquisitions. This report presents a situational audit for Nestle Foods, one of the world’s largest organizations. It explores the external, competitive, and internal market factors influencing the organization performance. Finally, it provides an analysis of the suitability of the marketing strategy used by the corporation and provides appropriate recommendations. The Internal environment According to Remenyi, Money and Bannister (2007, p.128), the internal analysis of an organization helps to identify the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The strengths represent the competencies and resources within the organization, which help it to achieve a competitive position in the industry. Nestle foods has numerous strengths which have helped the organization to become one of the worlds largest corporations.... Management of the organization has excelled in creating an environment, which foster innovation in the company. Innovation has helped the organization to achieve internal growth through the ability to meet and surpass consumer expectations. Nestle Foods has uses a low cost strategy which helps the organization to maintain low cost for all operations. Through the low cost strategy, Nestle Foods is able to offer its consumers competitive prices for its products. In addition, Nestle foods have a highly competitive team of research and development in charge of new product development. Nestle Foods has affiliations with major learning institutions and has developed a university where most of its research and development is conducted. The research and development team has enabled Nestle Foods to differentiate its products from those of its competitors in the industry. Another strength that Nestle Foods has its health based weight-management product line. With the growing popularity of heal th foods in the European market and other countries, this presents a lucrative opportunity for Nestle Foods. According to Remenyi, Money and Bannister (2007, p.128), threats are factors in the business environment which may hinder the successful implementation of an organization strategies. Nestle Foods has undertaken an intensive expansion strategy by venturing in many markets in Europe and other continents. However, most markets in Europe are already saturated which may hinder the successful implementation of the Nestle Food’s expansion strategy in European markets. For example, when Nestle Foods launched its yoghurt, Yoplait, in France, it failed to acquire a large market share because Danone is the established brand of yoghurt in the country. Nestle

Reproductive Health as A Womans Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reproductive Health as A Womans Issue - Essay Example Perhaps nowhere in the world today where every aspect of women’s reproductive health is heavily scrutinized than in that country. Which explains why it is worthy to take notice if such measure of improving women’s health is valid and re-examine our own stance with the arguments presented. There are two sides of the argument, according to pro-RH Bill â€Å"the reproductive health (RH) bill promotes information on and access to both natural and modern family planning methods, which are medically safe and legally permissible. It assures an enabling environment where women and couples have the freedom of informed choice on the mode of family planning they want to adopt based on their needs, personal convictions and religious beliefs. On the other side of the coin is the â€Å"the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines' Fr. Melvin Castro drew raised eyebrows when he said tubal ligation, a popular medical method involving the cutting women's Fallopian tubes to preve nt them from becoming pregnant again, is considered as a sin by the church (Philippine Daily Inquirer).

The Impact of Macro and Micro Environmental Factors on International B Case Study

The Impact of Macro and Micro Environmental Factors on International Business Activities - Case Study Example Macro environmental influences can better be explained by the use of the PESTEL framework. According to Johnson et al (2006), the PESTEL framework is a framework that can be used to categorise the factors that influence the business environment of an organisation into six main types including Political Influences, Economic influences, Technological influences, Socio-cultural Influences, Environmental influences, and Legal influences. The business environment of Inditex is indifferent as Inditex is affected by governmental laws, international laws, competition from other fashion distribution companies, change in interest rate, politics, technology (Dixon 2007) etc. Industria de Diseno Textil S.A (Inditex) together with its subsidiaries operates as a fashion distribution worldwide (Inditex Review 2008). The company's operations include various phases of the fashion process, such as design, manufacture, logistics and distribution to its own managed stores (Inditex Review 2008). The company offers eight commercial concepts including Zara, Pull, Bear, Massimo Donati, Besishka, Stradivarius etc. The company remains a strategic and a key player in the European fashion and distribution market. For example, despite the global economic crisis, the company announced flat same stores sales for 2008 (Inditex Review 2008). ... The company's operations include various phases of the fashion process, such as design, manufacture, logistics and distribution to its own managed stores (Inditex Review 2008). The company offers eight commercial concepts including Zara, Pull, Bear, Massimo Dolti, Besishka, Stradivarius etc. The company remains a strategic and a key player in the European fashion and distribution market. For example, despite the global economic crisis, the company announced flat same stores sales for 2008 (Inditex Review 2008). However, as part of the mega-environment in which the company depends on to effectively carry out its activities, the creator of the Zara fashion chain is not impervious to the global recession (Inditex Review 2008). 2.0 The PESTLE Framework According to Dixon (2007), the PESTLE framework is a way to understand the industry's external environment, which includes Political, Economic, and Social and Technological analysis. These factors will influence company long-term decisions in an industry. Today's business environment is increasingly becoming more turbulent, chaotic and challenging than ever before and to survive, it is vital that a firm can do something better than its competitors ( Wonglimpiyarat 2004:1). Globalization has not only altered the nature and the intensity of competition but has had to dictate and shape organisations in terms of what consumers want, how and when they want it and what they are prepared to pay for it (Hagan 1996:1). Kanter (1995:71) on his work of "Mastering Change" argues that success in the present day business is not for those companies that re-engineer the way they do things, or for those fixing the past. According to Kanter (1995), such an action will not constitute an adequate response. This is so because success is based on an organization’s ability to create, rather than predict the future by developing those products that will literally transform the way the world thinks and view itself and the needs.     

Madagascar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Madagascar - Essay Example The population of Madagascar in 2012 was 22,293,914 (â€Å"Madagascar-Population†). Food in Madagascar comprises rice as an essential element. The national dish of Madagascar is Ramazava which is made with mixed greens and beef sautà ©ed with onion, tomato, and ginger. Although Malagasy food is reasonably spicy for the most part, yet Piri-Piri is an extremely spicy pepper paste commonly used in Malagasy food (â€Å"Madagascar: Food†). Ancestors in the Madagascar society remained united and were against segregation. Forming a wonderful amalgamation of language, religion, and tradition, these ancestors set the pattern of modern culture in Madagascar. The contemporary society of Madagascar is a fine blend of modernism and traditionalism. Malagasy is the main language spoken in Madagascar and the origin of this language is linked with Maanyan that is the language of South Eastern Borneo (â€Å"Society and Culture†). Cargo boats are the main transport means on the northeast coast of Madagascar. They are not very safe means of transport particularly when they are overloaded. Boat travel is unsafe on the east coast specially during the rainy season. International Driving Permit (IDP) is required to drive car or motorcycle in Madagascar. MadaBus is a long-distance bus company that operates on Tamatave and Toliar routes (â€Å"Getting around†). Formal education appeared in Madagascar in the modern sense for the first time in 1820 when a school was established in Antananarivo by the missionary David Jones from the London Missionary Society (â€Å"Education in Madagascar†). Madagascar is one of the poorest countries of the world in spite of its cultural and biological richness mainly because of economic colonialism, kleptocractic rule, lack of infrastructure, and lack of adequate educational system (â€Å"Why is

Finance for Managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Finance for Managers - Essay Example Conclusion 23 References 24 Introduction Lloyds Banking Group is regarded as one of the foremost groups of financial service that render its valuable services particularly in the UK. The group delivers its different services especially to personal and corporate customers. Lloyds was renamed in January 2009 after Lloyds TSB acquired HBOS, one of the banking and insurance companies of the UK, with a vision to become the best bank in the UK as compared to others. The group is viewed to be the largest retail bank operating in the UK with leading edge in many sectors in comparison with other banks prevailing in the UK. The group possess multiple brands that are served to its valuable customers which ultimately makes the group to enhance its productivity by a considerable level and accomplish significant competitive position over its chief business market competitors (Lloyds banking Group, 2012). This paper intends to critically analyse and assess the different sources of long-term finance that are currently used by Lloyds concerning a detailed discussion about the advantages as well as the disadvantages of each identified source supported with suitable calculations. Moreover, the paper also evaluates the approaches related with planning, control, performance management and financial decision making of the selected organisation. Various aspects such as evaluating the role of the Management Accountant in Lloyds and recognising a particular analytical technique that is used by this organisation that helps the organisation to make effective planning and decision-making among others will also be portrayed in this paper. Question 1 Identification and Assessment of long-term finance sources Used by Lloyds Banking Group Lloyds identify funding to be a key area of focus for its successful business performance. The group raises its long-term finance through executing various sources that include equity capital, customer deposits, wholesale funding and debt financing (Michigan Economic Development Corporation, 2009). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Source, Supported With Relevant Calculations Equity Capital The most important source of raising long-term funds for the financial institutions is the issue of equity shares. It has been apparently observed that Lloyds considers the issuance of equity shares as a p ermanent source of finance for them. This is owing to the fact that the issuance of equity capital has increased the group’s financial base as well increased its borrowing ability by a significant level. Being a financial institution, there might lay a probable chance of rising significant threat concerning that the issue of equity shares may reduce the ownership control of the existing shareholders and dividends payment can be reduced at large. In this similar context, the group strongly believed that the source i.e. issuance of equity shares would support it to mitigate the aforesaid threats (Michigan Economic Development Corporation, 2009). Customer/Public Deposits Customer or public deposits are also regarded as another important source of long-term finance for Lloyds. According to the group, customer or public

Cash for comment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cash for comment - Essay Example Equivalently, this is to imply that given liberty of serving personal growth and interests alone without stepping over similar rights of other individuals, one may take pride in earning bucks filthy enough by the quantity and act to the extent of breaching terms of integrity. It is as if the condition imposed by the latter must be absent and related criticisms be relieved of for ‘Cash for Comment’ to prove its state of affairs blameless among involved parties, say of journalists primarily, who could be gaining mass after mass of wealth if allowed the entire freedom from elements of guilt with deliberate immodest advances. This, however, is never the case for the 1999 scandal in the field of mass communication which itself introduced the label phrase ‘Cash for Comment’ through major personalities known to have gone into certain wicked ways running counter to the intended course of noble and responsible journalism. To recall prominent names as John Laws, Alan Jones, 2UE, and the Australian Bankers’ Association is to likewise give key ideas that would in brief concretize depiction of the ‘Cash for Comment’ incident. In particular, the event marked the turning point in history of an industry for which heightened skepticisms were raised following ABC’s Media Watch program exposà © in July 1999 of Sydney’s talkback radio show host John Laws whose positive on-air opinions regarding financial institutions were alleged to have been arranged as merchandise for the sponsoring banks. Laws basically failed to disclose in public the nature of commercial negotiations made with the sponsors, leading thus to serious charges against the station’s licensee 2UE for not complying with suitable regulations set through the Commercial Radio Code of Conduct which by Australian Broadcasting Authority or ABA requires commercial radio licensees to ensure no viewpoints are misrepresented or relevant information is withheld . ABA divulged findings of breaches incurred by 2UE through Laws’s fault of promoting remarkable critique for banks and banking industry on-air which according to ABA was actually made with the objective of reducing negative comments by J. Laws â€Å"from a present average of four a week to nil, concurrently receive positive comments from Mr. Laws, over and above the paid advertisements..† (Johnson, 2000). So, during the incident John Laws, along with Alan Jones whose involvement eventually got dismissed, was in acquisition of massive sum or cash in return after granting affiliates the desired comments within the program and public forum. At this point, the presenter likely gave into a trance-like state of seeing nothing else of significance but his craft while no border distinguished his knowledge of integrity from that of editing a known existing truth. Such shameless deed of crossing the line that resulted to negligence of duty and of respect for responsible broadca sting deserves regulatory sanctions having violated the fourth section of the Broadcasting Services Act of 1992, stating â€Å"to encourage providers of commercial and community broadcasting to be responsive to the need for a fair and accurate coverage of matters of public interest and for appropriate coverage of matters of local significance.† (ABA, 2000). Similarly, the Commercial Radio Code of Conduct expressed agreement to the violation committed by the licensee based upon its requisite of guaranteeing that all advertisements be not

Organisational cultures Essay Example for Free

Organisational cultures Essay Introduction: defining culture The concept of culture has become increasingly significant in education during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced interest may be understood as an example of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those leadership and man- agement models which stress the structural and technical aspects of schools and colleges. The focus on the intangible world of values and attitudes is a useful counter to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a more balanced portrait of educational institutions. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather then their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organi- sation and how these individual perceptions coalesce into shared meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization: Beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value-preferences which influence how they behave and how they view the behaviour of other members. These norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156). The developing importance of culture arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more effectively within, this informal domain of the values and beliefs of teachers, support staff and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and ONeill (1994) both stress the increasing significance of cultural factors in leadership and manage- ment. The latter charts the appearance of cultural labels and suggests why they have become more prevalent: The increased use of such cultural descriptors in the literature of educational management is significant because it reflects a need for educational organiza- tions to be able to articulate deeply held and shared  values in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to new, uncertain and potentially  threatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and meaning for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of visible and certain organizational structures and relationships. In this sense the analysis and influence of organizational culture become essential management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (ONeill, 1994, p.116) The shift towards self-management in many countries reinforces the notion of schools and colleges as unique entities with their own distinctive features or cul- ture. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater diversity and, in Eng- land, this is one of the Governments explicit aims. Caldwell and Spinks (1992) argue that there is a culture of self- management. The essential components of this culture are the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility. Societal culture Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is also the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of national or societal culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that the field of educational administration †¦ has largely ignored the influence of societal culture but their work has contributed to an increasing awareness of this concept. Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of context and stress the need to avoid decontextualized paradigms (p.1) in researching and analysing educa- tional systems and institutions: The field of educational leadership and management has developed along eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories †¦ Frequently, either a narrow ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is context †¦ context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and practice. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2) Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of different cultural contexts can quite transform the latters salience while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that all theories and interpretations of practice must be grounded in the specific context †¦ before they can be regarded as useful. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION48 Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) have given sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction between societal and organizational culture: Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods. School leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis) Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven dimensions of societal culture,  each of which is expressed as a continuum: 1 Power-distributed/power concentrated: power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated. 2 Group-oriented/self-oriented: people in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more independent and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs. 3 Consideration/aggression: in aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competi- tion dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. 4 Proactivism/fatalism: this dimension reflects the proactive or we can change things around here attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others a fatalistic perspective. 5 Generative/replicative: some cultures appear more predisposed towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere. 6 Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in limited relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tend to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, patronage and friendship, than to impartially applied rules. 7 Male influence/female influence: in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and professional life is perpetuated. In others, women have come to play a significant role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6). This model can be applied to educational systems in different countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education: 49ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES †¢ Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system †¦ China might be regarded as the archetypal high power-distance (power-concentrated) society (p.60). †¢ Chinese culture is group oriented. Collective benefits [are] seen as more important than individual needs (p.61). †¢ Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving priority to peoples relationships. The purpose of education is to mould every individual into a harmonious member of society (p.62). †¢ Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute such inequalities to the continuing dominance of patriarchy. Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate framework for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. Central features of organisational culture Organisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003): 1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values: Shared values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking are all different ways of describing culture †¦ These pat- terns of understanding also provide a basis for making ones own behaviour sen- sible and meaningful (Morgan, 1997, p.138). This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture. Dissonance is more likely in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also exist in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a balkanized culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groups: LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50 Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, socialize most often in the staffroom. The existence of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on learning, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum. Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their own dis- tinctive subculture and middle managers, or middle level leaders as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to cultivate this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)  imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture. 2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schools: As staff talked, worked and relaxed together, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers †¦ Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the uniqueness of each schools norms. These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff the way we do things around here. We have already noted, however, that there may be several subcul- tures based on the professional and personal interests of different groups. These typically have internal coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify senior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individuals: SMTs in our research developed a culture of teamwork †¦ A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views †¦ there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and contact with those outside †¦ [who] were excluded from the inner world of the team. 3 Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are  used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools, in particular, are rich in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150  and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models: Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools †¦ [they] have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby abstract values can be conveyed †¦ Sym- bols are central to the process of constructing meaning. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2). School culture may be symbolized through three modes: (a) Conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims. (b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction. (c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176). Schein (1997, p.248) argues that rites and rituals [are] central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions. 4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture: Choice and recognition of heroes †¦ occurs within the cultural boundaries identified through the value filter †¦ The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases. This feature is evident in South Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the South African fast bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing hero, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school. Developing a culture of learning in South Africa As we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predominant culture reflects the wider social structure of the post-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education. Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture: †¢ Spirituality: life is viewed as vitalistic rather than mechanistic. †¢ Harmony: humans and nature live interdependently and in harmony. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 †¢ Movement: rhythm, music and dance. †¢ Verve: high levels of stimulation. †¢ Affect: emotions and feelings. †¢ Communalism: social connectedness and an awareness of responsibilities to the  group transcending individual privileges. †¢ Expressive individualism: genuine personal expression. †¢ Oral tradition: oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. †¢ Social time perspective: time as social rather than material space (adapted from Ngcobo 2003, p.224). Ngcobo (2003) notes that these cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became particularly significant as schools began to change their racial composition in response to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny admission to students on the basis of race. For- merly white schools, with a predominantly European culture, began to assimilate learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two contrasting examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black). This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to the strong integrative culture it promotes (Ngcobo 2003, p.230). The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the weapons of the black majority was for young- sters to strike and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be absent from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the breakdown in the culture of learning †¦ continued unabated. This issue surfaced in Bush and Andersons (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that: †¢ the school is striving to instill in the minds of learners that education is their future †¢ to show the importance of education within and outside the school †¢ to provide a conducive educational environment †¢ to develop a culture of learning. 53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES The absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africas integrated schools. It seems likely that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in individual schools. Leadership and culture We noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating core values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture: Few heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the degree to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads †¦Ã‚  will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the school less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making: words, actions, artefacts and settings. Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are founders of their schools culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads dismantled the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example: All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expected to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent. Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture. Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture: †¢ Document the schools history to be codified and passed on. †¢ Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 †¢ Review the schools rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. †¢ Exploit and develop ceremony. †¢ Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstream  activity. This provides access to the informal communications network. One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff selection process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the hope  that those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likely to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so. Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to distinguish between universalistic and particularistic approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders. Using cultural criteria to appoint new staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts (p.153). He point to multiple barri- ers to change including: †¢ staff wanted top down change and not ownership †¢ weve always done it this way †¢ individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture †¢ staff blaming childrens home background for examination failure †¢ numerous personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4). This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, [it is] dangerous †¦ for  managers to move too fast on cultural change (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to mould culture but rejects the belief that something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers. 55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES Hargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that most peoples beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to rapid change: †¢ The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly critical inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the prospect of staff redundancies or school closure. †¢ The leader is very charismatic, commanding instant trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. †¢ The leader succeeds a very poor principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60). These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, if none of these special conditions applies, assume that cultural change will be rather slow. Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his leadership forces hierarchy, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadership: The net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond together  students, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school †¦ As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance. Limitations of organisational culture The concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003): 1 The notion of organisational culture may simply be the imposition of the leaders values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. Shared cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to a process of ideological  control and warns of the risk of manipulation: Ideological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy †¦ such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust †¦ where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite manipulative and totalitarian in its influence. (pp.150-1) Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the dark underworld of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics: The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and rituals  were capable of being subverted by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term resistance group to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture. 2 The portrayal of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the evolution of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are vital components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002; Briggs 2003). In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the creation of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leaders own values. 3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as before: A symbol can represent something which is real in the sense that it †¦ acts as a surrogate for reality †¦ there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the fiction that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance †¦ in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166) Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual. When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best we  can †¦ however †¦ it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals. Conclusion: people and culture The belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper- ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a one size fits all model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools. The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ownership of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change (Morgan 1997, p.150). The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as significant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. Even the most concrete and rational  aspects of organization whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day (Morgan 1997, p.146). Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ownership of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation. An understanding of both societal and organisational culture also provides a sound basis for leading and managing people in education. In many countries, schools and colleges are becoming multicultural, and recognition of the rich diver- sity of the cultural backgrounds of students, parents and staff is an essential element in school management. Similarly, all educational organisations have certain dis- tinctive features and understanding and managing this cultural apparatus is vital if leadership is to be in tune with the prevailing norms and values. An appreciation of the relevance of both societal and organisational culture, and of the values, beliefs and rituals that underpin them, is an important element in the leadership  and management of schools and colleges. References Akinnusi, D. (1991), Personnel management in Africa, in Brewster, C. and Tyson, S. (eds), International Comparisons in Human Resource Management, London, Pitman. Badat, S. (1995), Educational politics in the transition period, Comparative Educa- tion, 31 (2), 141-159. Beare, H., Caldwell, B. and Millikan, R (1989), Creating an Excellent School: Some New Management Techniques, London, Routledge. Bridge, W. (1994), Change where contrasting cultures meet, in Gorringe, R. (ed.), Changing the Culture of a College, Blagdon, Coombe Lodge Reports. Briggs, A. (2003), Finding the balance: exploring the organic and mechanical dimensions of middle managers roles in English further education colleges, Edu- cational Management and Administration, 31 (4), 421-436. Bush, T. (1998), Organisational culture and strategic management, in Middlewood, D. and Lumby, J. (eds), Strategic Management in Schools and Colleges, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Bush, T. (2003), Theories of Educational Leadership and Management: Third Edition, London, Sage. Bush, T. and Anderson, L. (2003), Organisational culture, in Thurlow, M., Bush, T. and Coleman, M. (eds), Leadership and Strategic Management in South African Schools, London, Commonwealth Secretariat. Bush, T. and Qiang, H. (2000), Leadership and culture in Chinese education, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 20 (2), 58-67. Bush, T., Qiang, H. and Fang, J. (1998), Educational management in China: an overview, Compare, 28 (2), 133-140. Caldwell, B. and Spinks, J. (1992), Leading the Self-Managing School, London, Falmer Press. Campbell-Evans, G. (1993), A values perspective on school-based management, in C. Dimmock (ed.), School-Based Management and School Effectiveness, London, Routledge. Coleman, M., Qiang, H. and Li, Y.(1998), Women in educational management in China: experience in Shaanxi province, Compare, 28 (2), 141-154. Crossley, M. and Broadfoot, P. (1992), Comparative and international research in education: scope, problems and potential, British Educational Research Journal, 18, 99-112. Deal, T. (1985) The symbolism of effective schools, Elementary School Journal, 85 (5), 605-20. Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. (2002a), An international view of the principalship and its development: allowing for cultural context no one best practice model, paper presented at the National College for School Leadership International Conference, Nottingham, October. Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. (2002b), School leadership in context societal and organizational cultures, in Bush, T. and Bell, L. (eds), The Principles and Practice of Educational Management, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Foskett, N. and Lumby, J. (2003), Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Fullan, M. and Hargreaves, A. (1992) Whats Worth Fighting for in Your School? Buck- ingham, Open University Press. Hargreaves, D. (1999), Helping practitioners explore their schools culture, in J.Prosser (ed.), School Culture, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Harris, A. (2002), Effective leadership in schools facing challenging circumstances, School Leadership and Management, 22 (1), 15-26. Hoyle, E. (1986), The Politics of School Management, Sevenoaks, Hodder and Stoughton. Irvine, J. (1990), Black Students and School Failure, New York, Greenwood Press. Morgan, G. (1997), Images of Organization, Newbury Park, CA, Sage. Nias, J., Southworth, G. and Yeomans, R. (1989), Staff Relationships in the Primary School, London, Cassell. Ngcobo, T. (2003), Managing multicultural contexts, in Lumby, J., Middlewood, D. and Kaabwe, E. (eds), Managing Human Resources in South African Schools, London, Commonwealth Secretariat. ONeill, J. (1994), Organizational structure and culture, in Bush, T. and West-Burn- ham, J. (eds), The Principles of Educational Management, Harlow, Longman. Prosser, J. (1999), School Culture, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Reynolds, D. (1996), Turning round ineffective schools: some evidence and some speculations, in Gray, J., Reynolds, D., Fitzgibbon, C. and Jesson, D. (eds), Merg- ing Traditions: The Future of Research on School Effectiveness and School Improvement, London, Cassell. Schein, E. (1997), Organizational Culture and Leadership, San Francisco, CA, Jossey- Bass. Sergiovanni, T. (1984) Cultural and competing perspectives in administrative the- ory and practice, in Sergiovanni, T. and Corbally, J. (eds), Leadership and Organi- zational Culture, Chicago, IL, University of Illinois Press. Turner, C. (1990), Organisational Culture, Blagdon, Mendip Papers. Walker, A. and Dimmock, C. (2002), Introduction, in Walker, A. and Dimmock, C. (eds), School Leadership and Administration: Adopting a Cultural Perspective, London, RoutledgeFalmer. Wallace, M. and Hall, V. (1994) Inside the SMT: Teamwork in Secondary School Man- agement, London, Paul Chapman Publishing.

Ansoff Product Market Growth Matrix Marketing Essay

Ansoff Product Market Growth Matrix Marketing Essay A useful planning tool in respect of markets and products is the matrix developed by Igor Ansoff (H Igor Ansoff, 1918-2002), who is regarded by some as the Father of Strategic Management. Fully titled the Ansoff Product-Market Growth Matrix, the tool was first published in Harvard Business Review, 1957, in Ansoffs paper Strategies for Diversification. The Ansoff product-market matrix helps to understand and assess marketing or business development strategy. Any business, or part of a business can choose which strategy to employ, or which mix of strategic options to use. This is a fundamentally simple and effective way of looking at strategic development options. existing products new products existing markets market penetration product development new markets market development diversification Each of these strategic options holds different opportunities and downsides for different organizations, so what is right for one business wont necessarily be right for another. Think about what option offers the best potential for your own business and market. Think about the strengths of your business and what type of growth strategy your strengths will enable most naturally. Generally beware of diversification this is, by its nature, unknown territory, and carries the highest risk of failure. Here are the Ansoff strategies in summary: Market penetration   Developing your sales of existing products to your existing market(s). This is fine if there is plenty of market share to be had at the expense of your competitors, or if the market is growing fast and large enough for the growth you need. If you already have large market share you need to consider whether investing for further growth in this area would produce diminishing returns from your development activity. It could be that you will increase the profit from this activity more by reducing costs than by actively seeking more market share. Strong market share suggests there are likely to be better returns from extending the range of products/services that you can offer to the market, as in the next option. Product development   Developing or finding new products to take to your existing market(s). This is an attractive strategy if you have strong market share in a particular market. Such a strategy can be a suitable reason for acquiring another company or product/service capability provided it is relevant to your market and your distribution route. Developing new products does not mean that you have to do this yourself (which is normally very expensive and frequently results in simply re-inventing someone elses wheel) often there are potential manufacturing partners out there who are looking for their own distribution partner with the sort of market presence that you already have. However if you already have good market share across a wide range of products for your market, this option may be one that produces diminishing returns on your growth investment and activities, and instead you may do better to seek to develop new markets, as in the next strategic option. Market development   Developing new markets for your existing products. New markets can also mean new sub-sectors within your market it helps to stay reasonably close to the markets you know and which know you. Moving into completely different markets, even if the product/service fit looks good, holds risks because this will be unknown territory for you, and almost certainly will involve working through new distribution channels, routes or partners. If you have good market share and good product/service range then moving into associated markets or segments is likely to be an attractive strategy. Diversification   taking new products into new markets. This is high risk not only do you not know the products, but neither do you know the new market(s), and again this strategic option is likely to entail working through new distribution channels and routes to market. This sort of activity should generally be regarded as additional and supplementary to the core business activity, and should be rolled out carefully through rigorous testing and piloting. Consider also your existing products and services themselves in terms of their market development opportunity and profit potential. Some will offer very high margins because they are relatively new, or specialised in some way, perhaps because of special distribution arrangements. Other products and services may be more mature, with little or no competitive advantage, in which case they will produce lower margins. The Boston Matrix is a useful way to understand and assess your different existing product and service opportunities: boston matrix model  Ã‚  product/service develeopment The Boston Matrix model is a tool for assessing existing and development products in terms of their market potential, and thereby implying strategic action for products and services in each category. low market share high market share growing market problem child (rising) star mature market dog cash cow Cash cow   The rather crude metaphor is based on the idea of milking the returns from previous investments which established good distribution and market share for the product. Products in this quadrant need maintenance and protection activity, together with good cost management, not growth effort, because there is little or no additional growth available. Dog   This is any product or service of yours which has low market presence in a mature or stagnant market. There is no point in developing products or services in this quadrant. Many organizations discontinue products/services that they consider fall into this category, in which case consider potential impact on overhead cost recovery. Businesses that have been starved or denied development find themselves with a high or entire proportion of their products or services in this quadrant, which is obviously not very funny at all, except to the competitors. Problem child   These are products which have a big and growing market potential, but existing low market share, normally because they are new products, or the application has not been spotted and acted upon yet. New business development and  project management principles  are required here to ensure that these products potential can be realised and disasters avoided. This is likely to be an area of business that is quite competitive, where the pioneers take the risks in the hope of securing good early distribution arrangements, image, reputation and market share. Gross profit margins are likely to be high, but overheads, in the form of costs of research, development, advertising, market education, and low economies of scale, are normally high, and can cause initial business development in this area to be loss-making until the product moves into the rising star category, which is by no means assured many problem children products remain as such. rising star   Or star products, are those which have good market share in a strong and growing market. As a product moves into this category it is commonly known as a rising star. When a market is strong and still growing, competition is not yet fully established. Demand is strong; saturation or over-supply do not exists, and so pricing is relatively unhindered. This all means that these products produce very good returns and profitability. The market is receptive and educated, which optimises selling efficiencies and margins. Production and manufacturing overheads are established and costs minimised due to high volumes and good economies of scale. These are great products and worthy of continuing investment provided good growth potential continues to exist. When it does not these products are likely to move down to cash cow status, and the company needs to have the next rising stars developing from its problem children. After considering your business in terms of the Ansoff matrix and Boston matrix (which are thinking aids as much as anything else, not a magic solution in themselves), on a more detailed level, and for many businesses just as significant as the Ansoff-type-options, what is the significance of your major accounts do they offer better opportunity for growth and development than your ordinary business? Do you have a high quality, specialised offering that delivers better business benefit on a large scale as opposed to small scale? Are your selling costs and investment similar for large and small contracts? If so you might do better concentrating on developing large major accounts business, rather than taking a sophisticated product or service solution to smaller companies which do not appreciate or require it, and cost you just as much to sell to as a large organization. Customer Matrix:- This customer matrix model is used by many companies to understand and determine strategies according to customer types. good products not so good products good customers develop and find more customers like these allocate your best resources to these existing customers and to prospective customers matching this profile educate and convert these customers to good products if beneficial to them, failing which, maintain customers via account management not so good customers invest cautiously to develop and improve relationship, failing which, maintain customers via account management assess feasibility of moving these customers left or up, failing which, withdraw from supplying sensitively Assessing product type is helped by reference to the Boston matrix model. There is a lot of flexibility as to what constitutes good and not so good customers use your own criteria. A good way to do this is to devise your own grading system using criteria that mean something to your own situation. Typical criteria are: size, location, relationship, credit-rating and payment terms, is the customer growing (or not), the security of the supply contract, the service and support overhead required, etc. This kind of customer profiling tool and exercise is often overlooked, but it is a critical aspect of marketing and sales development, and of optimising sales effectiveness and business development performance and profitability. Each quadrant requires a different sales approach. The type of customer also implies the type of sales person who should be responsible for managing the relationship. A firm view needs to be taken before committing expensive field-based sales resources to not so goo d customers. Focus prospect development (identifying and contacting new prospective customers) on the profile which appears in the top left quadrant. Identify prospective new customers who fit this profile, and allocate your business development resources (people and advertising) to this audience. Consider also What are your competitor weaknesses in terms of sectors, geographical territory and products or services, and how might these factors affect your options? Use for assessing each competitor as well as your own organization or department. Many organizations issue a marketing budget from the top down (a budget issued by the Centre/HQ/Finance Director), so to speak, in which case, what is your marketing budget and how can you use it to produce the best return on investment, and to help the company best to meet its overall business aims? Use the models described here to assess your best likely returns on marketing investment. The best way to begin to model and plan your marketing is to have a record of your historical (say last years) sales results (including selling and advertising costs if appropriate and available) on a spreadsheet.  The level of detail is up to you; modern spreadsheets can organize massive amounts of data and make very complex analysis quick easy. Data is vital and will enable you to do most of the analysis you need for marketing planning. In simple terms you can use last years results as a basis for planning and modelling the next years sales, and the marketing expenditure and activities required to achieve them. Simple business plan or sales plan tools examples:- These templates examples help the planning process. Split and analyse your business or sales according to your main products/services (or revenue streams) according to the profit drivers or levers (variables that you can change which affect profit), eg., quantity or volume, average sales value or price, % gross margin or profit. Add different columns which reflect your own business profit drivers or levers, and to provide the most relevant measures. quantity total sales value average value % gross margin total sales or gross margin product 1 product 2 product 3 product 4 totals Do the same for each important aspect of your business, for example, split by market sector (or segment): quantity total sales value average value % gross margin total sales or gross margin sector 1 sector 2 sector 3 sector 4 totals And, for example, split by distributor (or route to market): quantity total sales value average value % gross margin total sales or gross margin distributor 1 distributor 2 distributor 3 distributor 4 totals These simple split analysis tools are an extremely effective way to plan your sales and business. Construct a working spreadsheet so that the bottom-right cell shows the total sales or gross margin, or profit, whatever you need to measure, and by changing the figures within the split (altering the mix, average prices, quantities, etc) you can carry out what if? analysis to develop the best plans. If you are a competent working with spreadsheets it is normally possible to assemble all of this data onto a single spreadsheet and then show different analyses by sorting and graphing according to different fields. When you are happy with the overall totals for the year, convert this into a phased monthly plan, with as many lines and columns as you need and are appropriate for the business. Develop this spreadsheet by showing inputs as well as sales outputs the quantifiable activity (for example, the numbers of enquiries necessary to produce the planned sales levels) required to produce the planned performance. Large businesses need extensive and multiple page spreadsheets. A business plan needs costs as well as sales, and will show profit as well as revenue and gross margin, but the principle is the same: plan the detailed numbers and values of what the business performance will be, and what inputs are required for incorporating these factors and financials into a more formal phased business trading plan, which also serves as a business forecasting and reporting tool too. Adapt it to suit your purposes. This plan example is also available as a PDF, see The numbers could be anything: ten times less, ten times more, a hundred times more the principle is the same. Consider also indirect activities that affect sales and business levels, such as customer service. Identify key performance indicators here too, such as customer complaints response and resolution levels and timescales. Internal lead referral schemes, strategic partnership activity; the performance of other direct sales activities such as sales agencies, distributorships, export activities, licensing, etc. These performance factors wont normally appear on a business plan spreadsheet, but a separate plan should be made for them, otherwise they wont happen.

Othello :: essays research papers

In William Shakespeare's Othello there is a wide array of themes. One of the themes, which is found true to nearly every character, is of the act of control throughout the play. Another theme portrayed through Iago, is the recurring use of words such as "monkey", "lion", etc. in "romantic" conversation. 	In Othello, characters such as Roderigo, Brabantio, Desdemona, etc. at one point of the play believe that they have complete control over another character or situation only to find that the person or situation is uncontrollable. For instance, in the first scene of the play Roderigo is interested in courting Desdemona so he pays Iago to intercede with her on his behalf. Roderigo now believes that his money has bought him complete control over Iago, but when he finds out of Othello and Desdemona's marriage, he is angry at Iago and tells him,"I take it much unkindly that thou, Iago, who hast had my purse as if the strings were thine, shouldst know of this." However throughout the play Roderigo is still convinced that his money is helping to control Iago, and by the time he finds out that he has lost control, he has already been mortally wounded by Iago. Another example of this theme occurs between the main characters of the play Othello and Iago. Since Othello is a se asoned warrior and leader of the Venetian army, he believes that everyone underneath him will abide by his rulings and commands. And since Othello has had a long term relationship with Iago, he has even more trust and faith in him. But Iago sees this and decides to take advantage of Othello. This is first observed when Iago and Roderigo are speaking of their plan to get Othello against Cassio. After Roderigo exits, Iago lets the audience know of how he will be able to control and lead Othello around. Because of this Othello, who was the controller, has now become controlled by Iago. And the final example that the theme of control is present in the play Othello portrayed through Desdemona. This occurs at the point in the play after the fight between Cassio and Roderigo. Cassio is begging of Desdemona to help him get his job back as lieutenant of the Venetian Army. The newlywed Desdemona is so positive that she can convince Othello to reconcile with him, that she promises Cassio: Do not doubt that: before Emilia here I give thee warrant of thy place.

The Cold War :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Cold War   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Cold War is the shifting struggle for power and prestige between the Western powers and the Communist bloc from the end of World War II until 1989. The Cold War was a fight between democracy and communism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There had always been mutual suspicion between the West and the USSR. This suspicion could be seen in the alliances these two powers had made during World War II. Even after the war , the West felt threatened by the continued expansion policy of the Soviet Union. Soviet Union also felt the fear of invasion from the West. Russia occupied zones in Germany, Austria and had made threats toward Turkey and Greece. Russia was making what Sir Winston Churchill called an â€Å"iron curtain†. The US took the lead in stopping Russian influenced and came up with the Truman Doctrine which gave funding to Greek and Turkey. Fearing communism would rise in much of torn eastern Europe, the United States came up with the Marshall plan. The Marshall plan helped to restore prosperity and growth in Europe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The policy of the West during the cold war was to contain the communist states, and hope that internal division or failure, of the communist state, might bring around their demise. In 1948 the Soviet Union directly challenged the US setting up blockades in west Berlin. In 1949 the US went against its policy on permanent alliances, and signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, along with eleven other countries. In 1955 the Soviet Union came back with the Warsaw Treaty Organization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cold war was more of a race. The country with the most allies, most weapons, best technology and best military was the winner. The country with the swiftest nuclear weapons and the country who could completely annihilate the enemy was the better country.

Gravity: Meaning of Life and Crystal Bowl Essay

Symbolism is a good tool to use when we come across difficult abstract concepts such as life and death. For example, in her article entitled â€Å"Gravity†, David Leavitt tells us a story about how a mom named Sylvia encourages her HIV infected son Theo to live longer. When Theo started to have bad eye sight in his childhood Sylvia just let him wear her flamboyant glasses despite that people around them all think that Theo looks strange. After Theo grew up, between a drug that could sustain his life and a drug that could save his sight, Theo chose the second one. Sylvia worried that Theo would give up the hope for living, so she tried to encourage Theo to live by a strange way which similar to the way she help him with his sight when he was a child. She threw a very heavy crystal bowl to Theo when they were shopping in a gift store. Theo caught the bowl without thinking. Theo realized that by throwing the bowl, on one side, Sylvia tended to prove that he is still alive. On the other side, Sylvia wanted to encourage him to live longer. The crystal bowl in the story represents exactly what Theo was going through. It symbolizes both life and death. It represents life because it was heavy and valuable â€Å"(The crystal bowl is) Four hundred and twenty- five dollars† (l. 88) This shows that the crystal bowl is very valuable just like that human’s life is very precious. In the same time, crystal bowl represent death because it could easily been shattered. Theo was surprised that he actually did not shatter the bowl â€Å"Theo looked at the floor, still surprised not to see shards of glass around his feet. † (l. 96-97) If the crystal bowl were broken, it would have not value or meaning just like it has lost its life. So, the Crystal bowl in the story represents death. If the bowl shattered, it just like a person lost his/her life. The crystal bowl also represents the character and hopes of Sylvia. The crystal in the story is very showing and pricy. â€Å"(The crystal bowl is) a large ridges crystal bowl, a very fifties sort of bowl, stalwart and square-jawed. † (l. 84-86) It represents Sylvia’s flamboyant and materialism characters. The author tells us that Sylvia has a flamboyant character by describing Sylvia’s bold and flashy glasses†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ harlequins with tiny rhinestones in the corners†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (l.9) The author also implies that Sylvia is quite materialism by showing us that she care a lot about the price of a graduation gift her sister given to her son â€Å"Don’t you remember that cheap little nothing Bibi gave you for your graduation? It was disgusting. †(l. 50-51) On the other hand, the crystal bowl represents the strength of Sylvia’s hope for Theo to live because the crystal bowl is heavy â€Å"’That’s heavy,’ Sylvia said, observing with satisfaction how the bowl had weighted Theo’s arms down†(l. 93-94) The heavier the stronger, so the heaviness of the crystal bowl represent the strong will and hope of Sylvia. The author shows us that Sylvia is a strong willed woman who has done extremely stressful things in a role â€Å"The DHPG injections she (Sylvia) took in stride—she’s seen her own mother through her dying, after all, Four times a day, with the equanimity of a nurse, she cleaned out the plastic tube implanted in his chest, inserted a sterilized hypodermic a Sylvia and slowly dripped bag of sight-giving liquid into his vein†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (l.17-20) It shows that Sylvia has tremendous strength just like the toughness the crystal bowl appeared to be. The author also shows us that Sylvia’s hope for Theo to live is very strong. Even though Sylvia was stressed out †Yet she (Sylvia) had also, at about three o’clock one morning, woken him up to tell him she was going to the twenty-four- hour supermarket, and was there anything her wanted†(1. 122-124) This shows that Sylvia was on the edge of mental broken-down. But Sylvia still keeps strong hope for Theo to live â€Å"†¦ it had occurred to him (Theo) that she (Sylvia) was trusting his two feeble hands, out of the whole world, to keep it from shattering. † This shows that after all, Sylvia strongly hoped that, showing Theo that he was still strong by throwing the crystal bowl and letting him catch it, Theo would not continue on giving up his life but choose to live longer. The crystal also symbolized the general message which the author is trying to convey to the readers: life should be fully lived. The author shows that Theo was dying and tended to giving up his life. He felt â€Å"†¦wide and unswimmable the gulf was becoming between him and the evereceding shoreline of the will †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (l. 35-36) Even though he felt that way, he still caught the heavy crystal bowl without thinking. It shows the underlining deep and significant meaning of the story â€Å"There are certain things you’ve already done before you even think how to do them†¦ the bowl, which Theo was holding before he could even begin to calculate its brief trajectory†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (l. 131-133) This shows us that all human have an instinct for living. By showing us this, the story conveys a message to the readers that even though life is violable like the fragile crystal bowl; it doesn’t mean that we should give up. Instead, we should look at the positive side of life. Just like the crystal bowl also heavy and strong side, human lives also have a strong side because very one have instinct for living. Therefore, we should have faith to ourselves and stop complaining our own misery but start to look at life in a positive way, and realize that our lives should be fully lived.

Effects of reality tv on teens Essay

Although reality TV is fascinating and full of drama, it still has an enormous effect on today’s youth. Throughout the years reality TV has become popular and it has attracted different age groups. But one group that reality TV attracts would be teens. Now I am not talking about all teens, but some teens do look at the actions of the television stars and think what they’re doing is â€Å"amazing†. When teenagers watch reality shows it opens their eyes to a lot of sex, vulgar language, and drugs. Allowing teens to be exposed to this much disapproval behavior is dangerous and can later bring problems later on in life. My best friend younger sister, who is fifteen, is starting to live the life of a reality star. She wakes up early for school, tired, from the previous night. She enjoys staying up all hours of the night just to be able to catch her favorite show, â€Å"The Bad Girls Club.† Wanting to be free, and doing whatever she feels like doing. Saying anyt hing she wants to whomever, going out partying with all her friends, open to try drugs (weed), ready to try and have sex. At a young age she wants to do everything like these â€Å"bad girls† do. Is it healthy? No, going out every weekend and partying is making her tired. All this â€Å"freedom† that she’s getting is making her not want to study for school. But watching these reality shows isn’t healthy for a fifteen year old. According to Mullings â€Å"The impact of heavy television viewing and the effects it has on young viewers has been a dominant topic since the 1960s. With the ever-changing landscape of television programming, reality television has become increasingly popular, especially among the pre-teen and teen audiences† (Mullings) Body: What exactly is reality TV? Well, according to LiveStrong â€Å"reality television consists of programs which purport to showcase people appearing as themselves in a variety of different contexts. Many reality programs revolve around competitions; others feature celebrities in their everyday lives.† For example â€Å"Jersey Shore† is about these Italian New Yorkers that only cares about partying and having sex. Another example would be â€Å"The T.I and Tiny Show† these two open their home to the public eye to see what they do and how the act on a daily basis. I am not saying that all reality shows  are horrible or not healthy for you, but some of the shows that they do play on television aren’t safe for young people eyes. Although there are pros and cons to watching reality TV, the pros seems to outweigh the cons. Teens that view shows like Teen Mom, Jersey Shore, or even Real World expect that maybe they can do the exact thing the reality star does. Beyond the reality shows teens, preferably girls, connects reality shows with social media. The teen girls go out partying, just like the reality stars, and spend majority of the night taking pictures of them and their friends. Just like in â€Å"Jersey Shore†, when Snooki and J-wow, goes out to a club it’s always about â€Å"selfies1† and when it is the right time to post the picture on social media. 1. Mullings, Natifia. â€Å"REALITY TELEVISION AND ITS EFFECT ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF INNER-CITY HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS .† (2012): n. page. Web. 8 Apr. 2014. . 2.

Case Study on School Safety

Case Study on School Safety Melissa Rookard EDD 520 January 24, 2010 Leslie Faught It is evident that schools' policies, programs, practices, physical structure, and teachers are factors internal to the school that determine school safety. These are the only factors that are internal to the school and within fairly complete control of schools. It is these factors that can be reformed and adapted to meet the end result of school safety. School safety is also determined to a very large extent by students, their criminal and other behaviors. Students in turn wear the dual hat of external and internal factors. They are external factors because they are part of the community and are internal factors because they are part of the school and can be disciplined to a certain extent through school policies. There was an incident at Horribly Heard Middle School in Dayton, Georgia. A young man names, Bruce, brought a gun to school and was taken into custody by the Dayton Police Department along with the help of the Department Juvenile Justice. There were many key players in locating the student to insure the school safety. A student was shown the gun and reported to his teacher, Mrs. Daisy. Mrs. Daisy in turn contacted her administrator and asked if he could come to the classroom. Mrs. Daisy, team leader, instructed her team to take the students to the library to check out books. Shortly after, they left an announcement came over the intercom that all students and teachers remain in class until told to dismiss. Teachers were instructed to read their e-mail immediately and follow the instructions laid out in the e-mail. All teachers had to take roll and report any missing children to the front office staff. Mrs. Daisy and her team stayed in the library and check their e-mail in the library. Administrator Bob, Principal Hope, and Resource Officer Life, came to the classroom to search Bruce and taken him into custody if the weapon was indeed on him. Two additional administrators stayed in front of the classroom to ensure no one came down the hall. Office Life took Bruce into custody and he was charged with weapons on school grounds. Once Bruce was taken off school grounds school ran as normally as possible. After school and the students were gone, the staff has an emergency faculty meeting. Principal Hope informed the faculty of the incident today and the student would not return back to school. Student was taken into Juvenile Justice Custody and no one was hurt. The student that told the teacher was also spoke to along with his parents in regards to the incident. They asked that he did not repeat was has happen to ensure students safety and parents concern. Students bring weapons to school more times than we are made aware. At HHMS, faculty and administration communicates well as was able to ensure school safety. Having students stay in the classroom or stopping all movements in the hallways is one way to keep order and asking faculty to take roll immediately and report any missing students via e-mail to front office staff is vital. I believe HHMS handle the situation to the best of their ability. School security is the most common type of activity that administrators should specifically set up to prevent disorder in the school. The most prevalent security strategy used throughout HHMS is various ways to monitor student and non-student movement within the school. The staff and administrators were primarily responsible for this task. To avoid a situation other types of security strategies could be used. Examples, are hiring special security personnel, use of metal detectors, and random searches. Schools should have two basic approaches to rules and procedures. The first approach are teachers tend to deal with all but the most serious discipline problems, including setting punishment and calling parents (if necessary). The second approach tends to deal with small infractions within the classroom and then refer students to an administrator for repeated or more serious infractions. The administrator was responsible for assigning punishment and contacting parents. Regardless of the approach, consistency of rule enforcement emerged as an important issue, especially among students. It is the role of the principal in setting the overall tone in a school when it came to discipline and enforcement of rules. School staff expressed more satisfaction if the principal set clear expectations, communicated regularly with staff, and gave them a voice in school issues.